• Glossary

Glossary

A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y Z

A

Abstract nouns

represent ideas, concepts or feelings, eg., truth, complexity, anger. BACK | INDEX

Action verbs

are a class of verbs which most people would recognise as verbs because they are used to represent physical action. E.g. hop, run, throw. (See also verbs). BACK | INDEX

Adjectives (also called adjectivals)

Add information to a noun. They “colour” it, adding many different kinds of information to it, eg., ownership (my); quantity (some); opinion (scary); factual (wide); comparing (better); classify (Australian). BACK | INDEX

Adverbs (also called adverbials)

give more information about verbs, adjectives, other adverbs or even a whole clause or sentence. Put simply, the adverbial indicates: when, where, how, why. (time, manner, place, cause) , the circumstances surrounding the action. BACK | INDEX

Active voice

In everyday language most sentences or clauses are in the active voice, where the agent (the ‘doer’ of the action) is the subject.
e.g. The cricketer (S) hit (V ) the ball (Object) to the boundary (Circs).

The active voice contrasts with the passive voice which is often seen in academic writing. BACK | INDEX

Affirmative

If a verb is expressed in the affirmative, it is making an assertion, a declaration or a confirmation, eg., I must eat to live; I passed my examination BACK | INDEX

Agents

are the ‘doers’ of an action. They are usually nouns, noun groups or pronouns and the subject of a sentence, except in sentences in the passive voice. BACK | INDEX

Analyse

means the breaking up of a question/issue into its component parts and explaining how they relate to one another BACK | INDEX

Argument

Is the attempt by the writer to defend and develop a central idea (a thesis). It appeals to reason and offers evidence or logical proof which is borne out in the argumentation. BACK | INDEX

Assess

means that the writer has to estimate the importance or value of something BACK | INDEX

Audience

This term is used for both listeners and readers of spoken or written texts. A writer, as well as a speaker, needs to adjust their language so it is appropriate for the listener or reader (i.e. their audience). E.g. the impersonal, objective style of academic assignments is quite different from SMS language or the informal conversation of friends. BACK | INDEX

Auxiliary verbs

are helping verbs. They assist verbs to express differences in time, eg. “The boy has been playing football.” “The boy had been playing football.” Some of the auxiliary verbs are: do, does, did, was, were, will, has, had. NB. To be auxiliary, they must be coupled to another verb, eg. does eat; did eat; was going, will go. BACK | INDEX

C

Circumstances

indicate “when”, “where”, “how”, “with whom” happenings are taking place. They are often called adverbials. BACK | INDEX

Cohesive devices

Are means the writer uses to structure the flow of information in and between paragraphs. They ensure that ideas are clearly expressed. Four important devices are: transition signals such as: conjunctions and sentence connectives; referring words such as: pronouns; repetition of key words and phrases; thematisation. BACK | INDEX

Command

is a type of sentence used to get things done or obtain something. BACK | INDEX

Compare

means that the writer must examine similarities and differences in the topic(s) presented BACK | INDEX

Clarity

is the writer's ability to express clearly his/her meaning so that a confused message is not conveyed to the reader. It relies on how precisely and concisely the writer has managed to express the message. BACK | INDEX

Clauses

represent the basic unit of meaning in a text and essentially consist of a Subject and What is said about the subject. A clause must have a main (finite) verb and these two elements, the subject and the verb, are essential. However other elements such as adverbials, complements and/or objects may be included. BACK | INDEX

Collective noun

names a group of people or things, eg., committee BACK | INDEX

Complements

give more information about the subject. They normally follow a relating verb group such as: "be", "become", “have”. BACK | INDEX

Complex sentences

have at least one subordinate clause which is dependent on the main clause for it to make sense. eg, "After the graduation ball had concluded, the students felt tired and emotional.” BACK | INDEX

Compound sentences

are two simple sentences (or clauses) joined together by a co-ordinating conjunction (a linking word). The clauses are independent clauses (also known as main clauses or principal clauses) because they contain ideas which make sense by themselves and are of equal value. BACK | INDEX

Conclusion

is the final paragraph in an essay. It begins with a concluding phrase, eg., in conclusion, overall, then the rest of the first sentence reproduces in different words but without changing ideas, the thesis statement found in the introduction of the essay. This sentence is followed by several summary sentences covering the thought content of the essay. The final sentence rounds off the essay but does not introduce any new ideas. BACK | INDEX

Connectives

are words which link sentences, rather than conjunctions which link clauses, words and phrases.
Examples of connectors are: however, then BACK | INDEX

Continuous past and present

These tenses are used to show the duration of an action and are formed with the verb ‘be’ + present participle.

eg. They are sleeping (present continuous)
They were sleeping (past continuous)

link main clauses, words and phrases. And, but and or are three co-ordinating conjunctions BACK | INDEX

Contrast

is a form of writing in which the writer concentrates on differences BACK | INDEX

Convoluted style

occurs when the writer does not write clearly and concisely and so the intended meaning is camouflaged or lost in a maze of complicated structures. BACK | INDEX

Conjunctions

are words used to link dependent clauses and independent clauses. There are several types of conjunctions, such as: place (where),time (when), manner (the way that); cause (because). They express different types of relationships between ideas. BACK | INDEX

Co-ordinating conjunctions

link main clauses, words and phrases. And, but and or are three co-ordinating conjunctions. BACK | INDEX

Criticise

means to point out the faults, limitations and usefulness of the subject in question. BACK | INDEX

D

Define

means to explain the precise meaning of something. BACK | INDEX

Demonstrative pronouns

point out and stand for something understood, eg., That's mine. These are the required texts. There are four of these pronouns: this, that, these, those. BACK | INDEX

Dependent clauses

In complex sentences the dependent clause (also known as the subordinate clause) relies on the main clause (independent clause) for its meaning to be clear. They are linked to the main clauses, introduced by subordinating conjunctions. eg, "It started to rain heavily while we waited for the bus." BACK | INDEX

Describe

means to give a detailed account of a topic. BACK | INDEX

Diction

refers to the kind of words that control a text. The words could be those found in colloquial or ordinary everyday speech, in specialised areas of study, or in the language of social groups. BACK | INDEX

Direct objects

are a noun groups which have the action performed on them or done to them, eg., "The white rabbit saw Alice." In English, the object comes after the verb BACK | INDEX

Discuss

means to explain the meaning of something and present a logical argument exploring it. BACK | INDEX

E

English expression

is the way a writer of English expresses his/her thoughts and feelings. It could be in a conversational/colloquial fashion which is informal, or formally, where certain rules have been formulated and must be observed. BACK | INDEX

Evaluate

means to weigh up the importance, success or value of something, using evidence to support your view. BACK | INDEX

Evidence

is drawn from reading/research and is used in support of the writer’s explanation. BACK | INDEX

Examine

means to give a detailed account of something, questioning and exploring relevant issues. BACK | INDEX

Exclamation

is a particular group of words ending in an exclamation mark which expresses surprise or makes an emphatic statement. BACK | INDEX

Explain

means to give a precise account of something, with reasons for why or how it is as it is. BACK | INDEX

Explanation and illustrations

represent the writer’s voice explaining what he/she means by the topic sentence. BACK | INDEX

F

Finite verb

is the form of the verb in a particular time frame such as past, present, future. Its spelling alters according to whether its subject is singular or plural, eg. “He runs into the room”, “They run into the room”. The form of this verb, “run” indicates that the action of running is occurring in the present and not the past. Clauses and sentences must have a finite verb BACK | INDEX

Formal language

is a style of communication used in academic writing which adheres strictly to the conventions of syntax and grammar and expression and excludes colloquialisms, abbreviations and slang. BACK | INDEX

Fragment

A fragment occurs when the writer has a floating dependent clause in his/her writing and treats it as if it were a complete idea (independent clause); or when the writer treats a floating group of words not containing both a subject and a finite verb as a complete idea. e.g. Because they wanted to go home. BACK | INDEX

Future tense

is the form of the verb showing the time frame of the future – actions which have not yet occurred. This tense is formed with the auxiliary verb ‘will’ + the infinitive of the main verb. E.g. Tomorrow he will start his holidays. ‘Will’ is often contracted to ‘ll in informal speech or writing. BACK | INDEX

I

Illustrate

means to use examples from a range of sources to demonstrate the subject of the essay. This may include written description of visual materials, eg., diagrams, photographs. BACK | INDEX

Independent clauses

can stand alone and make sense. They must contain a finite verb. They may also be called a simple sentence, eg. "The dog ran across the road." In complex sentences an independent clause may also be called a main or principal clause, eg, "When the wind blows, the cradle will fall. " BACK | INDEX

Indirect objects

are the noun groups that tell us to whom or for whom the action is done, eg, "They read us (i.d.o) a story (d.o)." "Throw him (i.d.o) the ball (d.o)." BACK | INDEX

Infinitives

are the basic form of the verb, often preceded by the preposition "to", eg. “to be”, “to love”. This form is often called the dictionary form of the verb. BACK | INDEX

Introduction

refers to the opening paragraph of an essay. It has its own distinctive parts: orientation statement, statement of purpose, definitions (if required), statement of scope or limits set by the writer and the thesis statement or the writer's argument or point of view on the topic. BACK | INDEX

J

Jargon

refers to a specialised vocabulary unique to a certain group of the population used for purposes of communication in such areas as: medical science, technology, other sciences and academic disciplines. BACK | INDEX

Justify or prove

Means to make a case for a particular perspective, to establish the truth of something through supporting evidence or logical reasoning. BACK | INDEX

K

Keywords

are important words which are found in an essay question which direct the writer as to what kind of an essay is expected, eg., discuss, analyse justify and so on. These words indicate the writer must give both sides to the argument, or take the topic apart, examine its parts and put it together again, or give/argue explanations for something.

L

Link to next paragraph

A sentence or phrase the writer can use at the end of one paragraph in an essay to ensure that cohesion is achieved and that each paragraph is not just a disparate piece of information. BACK | INDEX

Literature review

surveys the literature written on a subject, outlining key themes, points of discussion and gaps. BACK | INDEX

M

Main clauses

See independent clauses. In complex sentences, independent clauses are often called main or principal clauses. BACK | INDEX

Modal verbs (also called: modals)

convey the writer’s or speaker’s attitude to the action being carried out. In the context in which they are found a sense of duty or certainty.

Modal Verbs: must, ought to, shall, has to, should, will, can, need to, could, may, might, would BACK | INDEX

N

Negative

If a verb is expressed in the negative, it is annulling, cancelling, opposing or disproving something, eg., I did not do it. The train will not be coming. That is not the way to do the exercise. BACK | INDEX

Nominalisaion

In formal writing verbs are often put into a noun form to allow the focus of the sentence to be on the ideas or arguments being presented, instead of on the people carrying out the actions. .E.g. Careful observation (noun) will result in the discovery (noun) of the birds' habitat (noun). INSTEAD OF:
If we observe (verb) them carefully, we will discover (verb) where the birds live (verb). Notice how nominalisation allows for a single clause (or simple sentence) instead of the three clauses needed in the second example which is a complex sentence. BACK | INDEX

Nouns and noun groups

are naming words for people, places, animals, things and ideas. The most common categories for nouns are: common/proper; count(able)/non-countable); concrete/abstract (this last often used in academic writing); collective; singular/plural; compound.

Noun groups is a term which can be used for single nouns, pronouns (we, he, they and the like) and phrases such as a beautiful smile. BACK | INDEX

O

Objects

See direct objects or indirect objects. BACK | INDEX

Opening sentence of a conclusion

See Conclusion

P

Paragraph organisation

The paragraph is organised into several elements: topic sentence, supporting sentences which include explanation, examples and appropriate evidence, link to the thesis statement, summary sentence and maybe a link to the topic of the next paragraph. If we observe (verb) them carefully, we will discover (verb) where the birds live (verb). Notice how nominalisation allows for a single clause (or simple sentence) instead of the three clauses needed in the second example which is a complex sentence. BACK | INDEX

Parallelism

means that similar ideas are expressed in the same grammatical fashion, eg., I saw him coming down the hill but I saw her getting out of a car AND NOT I saw him coming down the hill but I saw her get out of a car. BACK | INDEX

Paraphrasing

is the act of taking a text or section of a text and putting the writer’s words into your own. It is not a precise but interpretive rendition of the original piece of writing in which the writer must show the main idea and the supporting evidence. BACK | INDEX

Participants

This is another way of referring to the noun and/or noun groups in a sentence. In writing where there is a great deal of nominalisation, it can be difficult to identify the participants. E.g. ‘Necessity is the mother of invention’. Who is doing the needing and who is doing the inventing is not made explicit. BACK | INDEX

Passive voice

occurs in a sentence/clause when the doer of the action of the verb (the agent) is not the subject. It is a means for the writer to create an impersonal way of writing. It also puts the focus in the sentence/clause on the receiver rather than the doer, eg., "The day's mail was delivered by the postman’s son." BACK | INDEX

Past participle

is a verb form ending in "-ed", "-en", "d" or "t". It is coupled with parts of the verbs "to be" and "to have" to form a tense, eg., "I was frightened by the stranger." " Have you eaten your breakfast? " The past participle can also convey a sense of description when used in a phrase, "The paper, revised by the editor, was ready for publication." BACK | INDEX

Personal pronouns

replace an already mentioned noun or are used to refer to a noun understood, As subjects they are: I, we, you, he, she, it, they. As objects they are: me, us, you, it, him, her, them BACK | INDEX

Phrasal verbs

are formed with the addition of either an adverb or a preposition or a preposition and a noun. They give an informal note to a written text. The addition of the adverb/preposition alters the literal meaning of the verb, eg., "The oil-tank blew up." (meaning, 'exploded' not the literal meaning of "let out a current of air". "Take hold of yourself." (meaning 'control ' not 'grab'). BACK | INDEX

Precision

Precision in writing is exactness. It is the ability of the writer to state accurately what he/she means. BACK | INDEX

Prepositions

are relating words and often indicate position, "up", "on", "in". They relate or connect the word or words that follow them with some other part of the sentence. A group of words (phrase) beginning with a preposition is a prepositional phrase which can be either adverbial or adjectival. Eg., the girl with red hair (adj.); He walked with a limp. (adv.). BACK | INDEX

Present continuous tense

indicates the present moment and it is limited, eg., I am looking at the assignment question. He is climbing the stairs. BACK | INDEX

Present participles

are the ‘-ing’ form of the verb. eg. walking, smiling. This form is used with the verb ‘be’ to form continuous tenses.
Eg. he was singing (past cont.). I am washing up. (present).Eg. he was singing (past cont.). I am washing up. (present). BACK | INDEX

Principal clauses

See independent clauses and/or main clauses. BACK | INDEX

Process

Indicates what is going on or a state of affairs. It links with the participant to make a clause or sentence. BACK | INDEX

Pronouns

are words which stand in place of nouns, for example, “That’s Sam Smith.  He is my neighbour whose dog bit the postman yesterday.”  Both ‘he’ and ‘whose’ refer to (replace/stand in place of) Sam Smith.  Pronouns are classed as being part of noun groups. BACK | INDEX

Q

Question

is a sentence form which enquires about something, asks for information. It ends in a question mark. BACK | INDEX

R

Reflexive pronoun

reflects back to a preceding pronoun or noun eg., I went there myself.  Among ourselves there is no division BACK | INDEX

Relating verbs

are verbs which link two pieces of information, rather than being action words.  eg. be, become, have, remain, seem BACK | INDEX

Reporting verbs

are a means for the writer to introduce evidence from a piece of research through the use of such verbs as suggest, state, claim, challenge. (See section 4.7.3) BACK | INDEX

Review

means to examine how a topic has been studied and comment on the value and limitations of its treatment. BACK | INDEX

S

Scope/limits

is/are the areas of the topic that writer signals he/she will be examining in order to cover the purpose of the essay. BACK | INDEX

Sensing verbs

are used only in relation to humans and describe their thoughts and feelings.  They also include verbs of perception which involve our five senses: seeing, hearing, tasting, feeling and smelling BACK | INDEX

Sentences

a group of words which make sense, ending with a full stop, exclamation mark or question mark.  They are the basic unit of written communication and must contain at least one finite verb.  A sentence may consist of a single clause (a simple sentence) or there may be two or more clauses (compoundsentences or complex sentences). BACK | INDEX

Sentence connectives

Assist with the cohesion of a text.  They indicate how the text is developing.  The writer may wish to show that a summary of what has gone before is about to follow, eg., in short, overall BACK | INDEX

Sentence fragment

See Fragment BACK | INDEX

Sentence style/structure

Not all sentences are constructed identically. The writer may choose to create a very balanced structure, or have the climax of his/her thought at the end of the sentence; or put the main idea first in the sentence and have it followed by one or more qualifications; or even hide the main idea somewhere near the middle of the sentence. Finally, the writer may even choose to split the main idea and insert a subordinate clause inside it. Variety of sentence structure provides an interesting writing style. BACK | INDEX

Simple past and present tenses

are tenses which require only one verb. eg. she went (past); she goes (present).  Compound tenses need more than one verb, auxiliary + appropriate verb form.
eg. she was going (past continuous); she is going (present continuous); she will go (future). BACK | INDEX

Simple sentences

consist of only one clause.  They are separated from any other sentences, by a full stop, exclamation mark, question mark, or a semi colon.
eg.  Tom, Dick and Harry are going to Fiji next week. BACK | INDEX

Statement

is a sentence of a single clause which provides information, makes remarks or assertions. BACK | INDEX

Structure of an essay

is the way the elements of an essay are put together. BACK | INDEX

Subject

of a clause or sentence is the noun or noun group which is/was/ carrying out the action (shown by the verb).
eg. These students (S) are studying (V) law (O).
       The waves (S) pounded (V) the shore (O). BACK | INDEX

Subordinate clauses

See dependent clauses. These clauses must be linked to a main clause to avoid a sentence fragment. BACK | INDEX

Subordinating conjunctions

introduce dependent or subordinate clauses and link these clauses consisting of a subordinate idea to the main clause.  Examples of subordinating conjunctions are: while, since, because, as, whereas BACK | INDEX

Summarise

means to give the main points of something. BACK | INDEX

Summary sentence

In a summary sentence the writer draws conclusions about what he/she has written. BACK | INDEX

S V O

stands for Subject Verb Object which is the basic word order in affirmative statements in English. BACK | INDEX

Summarising

is the act of producing a short written version in a writer’s own words of the content and message of a text or passage. The writer must ensure that the author’s main idea in the text or passage is stated, but not the other details in the passage. BACK | INDEX

T

Terminology

is the study of terms which belong to a specific area of knowledge or terms almost always in use in a certain area of knowledge. BACK | INDEX

Tense

means time and shows the time frame of a happening. It refers to any one of the different forms a verb can take, such as: simple present, simple past, future, indicating the kind of time in which an action takes/took/will take/place, eg. simple present: speaks; simple past: spoke; future, will speak. BACK | INDEX

Text

This is a specialised grammatical term used to describe any piece of writing (or speaking) which makes sense by itself. A text may be as short at one word like “Exit” (which means the way out) or as long as Tolstoy’s War and Peace. BACK | INDEX

Theme

See thematisation BACK | INDEX

Thematisation

Consists of the way a writer creates “starting points” for each sentence with a deliberate choice of the first element in the opening clause of a sentence. The “starting point” is known as the theme and includes everything in the clause up to and including the first participant, circumstance or process, eg., Coal, for example, is shipped overseas. Despite the high temperatures, the work still continues. Sometimes the writer uses a subordinate clause as the theme, eg., Although prices have risen, there is still a demand for the product. BACK | INDEX

Thesis statement

is a writer’s claim, position or point of view about the topic on hand. It can be judgmental or make a recommendation. BACK | INDEX

Topic sentence

Usually stands at the head of a paragraph which states the idea which will be discussed in the paragraph. It contains a built-in control. BACK | INDEX

To what extent?

This is a phrase similar to evaluate: explore the case for and against a claim. BACK | INDEX

V

Verbs and verb groups

refer to a process in a sentence and is concerned with the following: relating, sensing, acting and saying. A verb indicates the action or state that is occurring. They are often called  ‘doing”, “having” or “being” words. A well constructed clause or sentence must have one finite verb (finite meaning: “limited” or “restricted” to the tense – past, present or future - that is actually expressed) which is related to the subject of the clause. A verb group could be a single word, eg., ran or a number of words, eg., was going to run. BACK | INDEX

W

Writer’s voice

is the writer’s opinion expressed in different sections of an academic essay, for example, the introduction and the argumentation. BACK | INDEX